Asian Antiquity

THE DIFFERENT INDIAN ART SCHOOLS

The almost infinite styles of the Indian Miniature Artform are classified into various schools. The more prominent among them are the Jain paintings, Rajasthani, Mughal, and the Pahari schools. These are then further classified into the various other forms, such as the Basholi, Kangra, Kalighat and the Sikh styles.

Jain Miniatures

These are manuscripts on paper about the lives of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, and of other Jain saints. Of these, the Kalpasutra of Bhadrabahu is the most popular. The illustrations consist of lotuses and other flowers, animals, birds, and Jain ascetics, who believed in not hurting any living thing. These were mostly painted in Gujarat and the Rajputana area of Western India, around the 13th and 16th century.

The same paintings are illustrated again and again - Mahavira as a child lying by his mother, Mahavira seated under a tree against a rocky landscape, Mahavira standing by while God Indra takes his royal robes and gives him monastic clothes. The drawing is angular, figures are shown in three-quarters profile, the noses are sharp, the fish eyes are ferocious. And one eye is extended in a peculiar way, like a 'further eye', jutting out of the profile.

The background color is generally a strong red. Yellows and blues are frequently used for the clothes. For contrast, black is used for hair and white to highlight purity. The lapis lazuli blue of Persia, as well as certain Iranian forms, came into these paintings, as trade grew between the two regions.

The Jain Miniature style spread all over India. The fierce fish eyes and sharp noses are visible in the Palm-leaf manuscripts of the Gita Govinda of Orissa. Jain influence also reached the Buddhist temples of Pagan in Burma. And it may have inspired some of the folk art of the Punjab Himalayas, where the passionate Basholi painting sprang up in the late 17th century, with the same fish eyes, sharp noses and savage ferocity.

The Mughal School

Humayun, second in the line of Mughal rulers, is acclaimed to be the first documented patron of Mughal painting. It was under him that the Dastan-i-Amir-Hamza was created. In these works, the first influence of Persian art is visible. Thus, the Persian, Central Asian and Indian elements mingled together and out of this synthesis, a new style, known as 'Mughal Style' was born.

The Persian tradition is visible through the use of brilliant colors, elaborate embellishment of costumes and the lavish use of gold. We can also see the Persian deep blue skies flat in tone, occasionally with a few birds or stars, hills with a river or a storm, and trees laden with flowers. The frequently used figures imposed on one another or a group of figures over a landscape also suggest the Persian influence.

The Indian traits are noticeable in the gestures of hand and face, elongated eyes, long straight tree trunks, stylised trees and leaves, and also by the water surface covered with lotus flower or shown by zig-zag lines with a fish or two. The fusion of the Indian and Persian styles had, in fact, begun even before the advent of Babur (the first Mughal emperor) and the earliest example appear in the illustrated pages of the Niamat-nama, a cookery book written in around 1500 A.D.

Also, the introduction of perspectives and three dimensional effects, and that of calligraphy and occasional use of the dragon point to Western an Chinese influence. Thus we see that the Mughal period was the golden age for the art of Indian Miniatures, as many new styles developed and the particular artform flourished.

The Rajasthani Kalam

The ancient Indian tradition of painting had survived, in a modified form, in many areas including Rajasthan. Jain palm-leaf manuscripts, book illustrations inspired by Persian styles and Hindu frescoes, had flourished side by side.

At the start of the 17th century, when relations between the Mughal and Rajput Court became closer, many Mughal paintings travelled to Mewar (Rajasthan) and made a permanent impact. The themes were taken from Hindu religious poetry. The rich, intense folk colors remained. But the traditional painting on walls yielded to miniatures and the general finish of Mughal paintings came in. Trees, plants, birds, animals and rocks began to be painted as in nature. In portraits, the Mughal style of shading came into vogue and the costumes of the imperial court appeared. The whole atmosphere became polished in the manner of the Agra Kalam (Mughal School).

What strikes one most about Rajasthani miniature painting is the intensity of colors. A characteristic of these miniatures is often the use of compartmental pictures in which space is divided into bands and rectangles and used as frames for figures and groups. These characteristics, along with the Mughal influence, can be seen in the various subsequent offshoots such as the Bundi, Kotah, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Kishangarh, and Kachhawa styles.

The Mughal and Rajasthani school, along with the Pahari (Hilly) paintings are the most important as far as contemporary Indian miniature art is concerned.

Jodhpur Style
The Jodhpur style originated taking clue from the art of the Mandore Gate. Mandore, as we know was a 13th century capital of the Rathors, who later founded Jodhpur in 1459 as their new capital. These paintings have a lots of sand dunes depicted along with thorny bushes, deer, camel, crow and horses. These paintings have a folk character and are relatively lesser influenced by the Mughal traditions. Bikaner Style Bikaner style has more mughal features than any other style of the Rajasthani school of paintings. This was mainly because, many of the mughal artists were employed at Bikaner. The subject matters are portraits, baramasa, Ragamala, Bhagwavt Purana and Krishnalilas.

Kishangarh Style (Kishangarh School of Painting) Kishangarh was a very small state but a very different type of artistic development took place here. This insignificant state was founded by Kishan Singh in the initial years of 17th century. The tremendous development of art took place under the local ruler Sawant Singh, a scholar, a critic and a renowned poet and well versed in Hindi, Sanskrit, Persian; who himself was a poet and used to write with a pen name Nagari Das. Over fifty books including the ‘Rasachandrika‘, ‘Bihari Chandrika’, ‘Utsavmala‘, ‘Padamuktavali‘ and ‘Rasik Ratnavali’ are some of the literary works accomplished by Nagari Das aka. Sawant Singh. The story of Nagari Das’s life is also very interesting. He sat on the local throne at the age of 49 years. He was an ardent devotee of Krishna but carried in his heart the love for ‘Bani Thani’ a maid in his step-mother’s household. The love was so deep that he started worshipping her as Radha. This is how he called himself Nagri Das, literally servant of Radha. Nagari Das took his poetic inspirations from a painter in the town called Nihal Chand, who was inimitable master in depicting the Radha and Krishna. Nihal Chand was the court painter of Nagri Das. He painted the celebrated Bani Thani. Sawant Singh was so deeply fell in love with his imaginary lover that he abdicated the throne within a span of 9 years to take recourse in Brindavan and worship his lover Radha as Bani Thani and himself live like his lord Krishna. He remained as a hermit in Brindavan until his death. Nihal Chand remained a painter even after his death for at least 16 years. Main features of the Kishangarh Style: Subject matter of Kishangarh school is widely varied and includes hunting scenes, Court scenes, Portraits of Kings, Nawabs, Emperors and Saints . The romantic life of Radha and Krishna, influenced by the Geet-Govinda of Jaydev is one of favourite subjects of the Kishangarh painters. Stories from the Bhagvat Puran and scenes from Bihari Chandrika by Nagri Das were also subject for the Kishangarh artists. The most common theme in Rajasthani and Pahari School, Nayak-Nayikabheda has been most beautifully depicted in Kishangarh. Here, mostly Nayak is Krishna and Nayika is Radha. They have been shown as lovers in beautiful natural setting. The chief attraction of Kishangarh School is the depiction of women. No where in any Rajasthani School, the women have been so beautifully painted. The faces are soft without being heavy and dry. Their faces are long with high and sloping foreheads, pointed long nose, bulging out well-cut-lips and long chins. The eyes have got a special place in Kishangarh School. A lock of hair hanging near the ear is specially found in Kishangarh style only.

Bundi style of Painting Bundi style developed during the times of Rao Surjan Singh. The location of Bundi was such that it favoured immigration of the artists from all sides. These paintings exhibit pointed nose, thick chubby cheeks, small stature and use of brilliant red and yellow colors. The main subjects of these paintings are Krishna Leela, Rama Leela, Baramasa, hunting scenes, scenes of court, festivals , elephant, horses, battle scenes, horse race, flowers, trees etc. The best example of Bundi paintings is the Chitrashala made during the times of Maharao Ummed Singh.

Kota Style of Paintings Kota is located only a few miles away from Bundi, yet it developed a different tradition of paintings in the medieval history. The subject matters were though same as that of Bundi. Jaipur style of Paintings Jaipur and nearby area including the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan is known as Dhundad region. The Jaipur style of painting started in 17th century. The subject matters of this style are Ragamala, Bhagvat Puran, Durga Mahatmya etc. Mālwa paintings By Malwa paintings, we generally refer to the 17th-century paintings centred largely in Mālwa and Bundelkhand. The term Central Indian painting is also used for the same. It was an offshoot of the Rajasthani School. The paintings include a series of the Rasikapriya, Amara Sataka and Ragamala.

Pahari Painting

As in other parts of India, the ancient tradition of painting in modified form in Kashmir, and the adjoining hill areas of the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. A number of pictures of various dates from these areas, have come to public during the last two to three generations. These have been collectively called Pahari paintings.

As the distance between one little kingdom and another in the Punjab Himalayas was comparatively short, the artists and pictures travelled from one state to another frequently. So, though some styles are distinct, no one can define the differences clearly. Several links are not available and no one knows exactly how the mutual influences spread from one kingdom to another. All the same, we have a fair amount of material from states like Basholi, Jammu, Guler, Kangra, Chamba, Garhwal, etc.

The main impulse seems to have been given by contact with the Mughal court but there seems to have been a folk base. Otherwise the surviving paintings of Basholi would not be so different from the Imperial Mughal style.

Basholi : The earliest known Pahari paintings are from the time of Raja Kirpal Pal (1678-1693) from Basholi. Reds, vermilions, browns, blues, yellows and greens, burst out from these pictures. The profile of these figures is fierce, almost as in the Jain Kalpasutras. And they have big fish eyes. The paintings are on a flat two-dimensional plane. The themes are mostly of the princes of the region, and illustrations of Hindu religious books, like the Gita Govinda and Bhagvada Purana. Most of these paintings are based on the Krishna theme, who is also the most popular Hindu deity.

Kangra : The best of the Mughal technique of drawing and the outburst of romantic feelings with religious and spiritual fervour found a happy blend in Pahari miniatures and it further culminated into the Kangra Kalam. The idiom 'Kangra ki Kalam' which is now the synonym of the most celebrated paintings of India, was first used by Lockwood Kipling, the then Principal of the Mayo school of Art in 1887.

Firmly administered by Ghamand Chand since 1761, Kangra reached the pinnacles of its glory during the reign of his grandson Sansar Chand II (1775-1825) who was a great patron of performing arts and the miniature paintings. These paintings were subsequently classified under an independent substyle of Pahari miniatures as Kangra Kalam.

The graceful treatment of feminine charm and superb rendering of nature are the hallmarks of Kangra paintings. The women are generally slim with pleasing curves and contours and possess an innocent but expressive face. The creepers climbing or embracing the trees seem to speak the language of love which is further pronounced by lovely night scenes either with moon and stars or with dark clouds.

The Krishnalila remains the most favourite theme of the Kangra Kalam. Lord Krishna is always the focal point whether he is shown as an infant, a lad or a young man. When more than one episodes are shown in a painting, the personality of Krishna predominates and steals away the show.

The Rajasthani style of arhitecture is amply reflected in the buildings as shown in the paintings and the softened Mughal impact is marked in earings and male beards. The colors used by the artist represent a wide range which are attractive but soothing. Extra brilliant colors have been avoided, instead, lighter and subdued tones have been preferred. The color scheme often accentuates the sentiments expressed and harmonises with the theme and its surroundings.

The glory of Kangra crossed its geographical limits and artists in other places also followed the strong idiom, which led to such offshoots as Kangra and Guler and the Kangra Kalam continues to influence contemporary miniature Indian art.

Other Indian Art Schools

The following are few of the other popular Indian art schools, which are directly relevant to the Indian art of Miniature Paintings

Tanjore Glass Paintings : In south India, at the end of the eighteenth century, the impact of foreign armies, particularly the French and the British, had hindered temple building. But the last spurt of inspiration, given by the Maratha Maharajas, Shahaji and Sarfoji II, to cultural activities in their capital Tanjore revived the art of dance, encouraged music and also brought about a hero-worship of the Maharaja and the courtiers in paintings on glass.

Some of the paintings of Sarfoji II, of familiar personages and of favourite divinities like Krishna, have survived in vivid colors on glass. They are in bold outlines, with an emphasis on decorative jewellery, done in a bizarre montage technique and have the naive charm of near-folk painting.

Basohli Paintings

Evolved in the 17th and 18th centuries as a distinctive style of painting fusing Hindu mythology, Mughal miniature techniques, and the folk art of the local hills. The painting style derives its name from the place of its origin—the hill town of Basohli. . . in the state of Jammu & Kashmir.

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, who was first to publish them, in Rajput Paintings in 1916, wrote about this style of painting believing it to be Jammu style. Discussing these Jammu paintings, Coomaraswamy observed:
The Jammu are well and vigorously designed often with a decorative simplicity very suggestive of large scale mural art. In several examples there reappears that savage vitality which has been already remarked in the early Rajasthani raginis, but it is here associated with more exaggeration and with a strange physical type, the peculiar sloping forehead and very large eyes are especially characteristics of some of the portraits..the coloring is hot. Silver is used as well as gold. A remarkable feature is the occasional use of fragments of beetle's wings to represent jewelery, and by the peculiar character of the architecture, with turrets, paneled doors, latticed windows and plinths ending in grotesque heads...Krsna and Radha or Mahadeva and Uma play the parts of hero and heroine.

The most popular themes of Basohli Paintings come from Shringara literature like Rasamanjari or Bouquet of Delight ( a long love poem written in 15th century by Bhanudatta of Tirhut Bihar ), Gita Govinda and Ragamala. These paintings are marked by striking blazing colors, red borders, bold lines and rich symbols. The faces of the figures painted are characterized by the receding foreheads and large expressive eyes, shaped like lotus petals. The painting themselves are mostly painted in the primary colors of Red, Blue and Yellow.

Source - www.50watts.com , Vinayak Razdan, Ananda Coomaraswamy - Rajput Paintings

Kangra Miniature Paintings

The invasion of Delhi in A.D. 1739 by Nadir Shah caused unrest in the Imperial court of Delhi. This resulted in the migration of some artists from Delhi to courts of hill rulers.
Two states which patronized the artists were Bhasoli and Kangra - in these States flourished the pahari style of painting.
This style of painting is famous for its flowing and refined lines and also for the depictions of the rolling hills. This delicate Mughal style was for the first time used on Hindu matter - i.e. stories of Mahabharata, Ramayan, Radha Krishna, Rajput chivalry, battle scene, court scene, festivals, portraits of the rulers and various other scenes of Erotica, nayaka etc.

(Source : www.royalkangra.com)

Kalighat Paintings :

Artisans from the vicinity of the Kalighat temple of Kali developed this form in the early 19th century. They painted, on hand made paper, the flowers and plants of India in a naturalistic manner, in large contours with curvaceous lines, pictures of Durga, Shiva, Rama, Sita, Krishna, as also the scenes of Calcutta life. These pictures may have been influenced by English prints, which were being sold in the markets. Shading, which was rare in Indian paintings, appears.